Introduction

In practice, complex training involves exercise sets whereby a traditional strength movement is followed by a biomechanically similar power exercise . This leads to an enhanced performance of the subsequent lighter set, over and above that which would occur without the prior heavy resistance set . This is usually termed post activation potentiation in situations where the muscle actions are voluntary. This method has proved particularly successful in improving jump performance and short-sprint ability .

Both the intensity of the preload and the length of the recovery appear to have a significant impact on the magnitude of PAP and resultant increase in power production. Significant increases in the performance of the subsequent power activity have been observed following these heavy load protocols . Other studies have investigated the use of lighter loads . Baker found that a 65% load for the bench press enhanced the performance of an explosive bench-press style throw.

Although improvements in subsequent power output have been observed following loads ranging from 30 to 85% of 1RM, there appears to be little research into the effectiveness of even lighter loads-specifically those achieved through the use of medicine balls. The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of high-load and low-load complex training exercises on functional upper body performance determined by the flight time of a basketball push-pass.

Approach to the Problem

A same-subject repeated-measures design was used to establish the effect of 3 conditions on the flight time of a basketball push-pass. The independent variables consisted of 3 experimental conditions. During Condition 1 participants performed 5 repetitions at 85% of a 1RM bench press. During Condition 2 participants performed 5 repetitions of a 2.3-kg medicine ball push-pass.

The dependent variable was an electronically timed basketball push-pass test that preceded and followed each experimental condition. When seeking to enhance performance through the use of PAP there is a trade-off between the degree and time course of potentiation and the fatigue induced by the preload stimulus . Most of the research showing a positive effect of complex training uses time periods between 3 and 4 minutes . A 240-second rest interval was selected because this allows time for full phosphocreatine resynthesize after Condition 1 and 2 and is comparable with that used in previous studies .

Subjects

Twelve competitive male athletes , with at least 6 months weight training experience and no apparent musculoskeletal disorders, participated in this study. Approval was granted by the University of Salford Ethics Committee.

Procedures

All testing took place at the Human Performance Laboratory of the University of Salford, United Kingdom. An initial visit was arranged to determine the 1RM bench press for each participant using the procedure identified by Fleck and Kraemer .Following this, testing occurred on non consecutive days, during which participants performed 1 of the 3 conditions. The order of testing was randomized to minimize any potential familiarization bias.

Both the basketball push-pass and the medicine ball push-pass were completed from a standing position. From a standardized stance with their feet on prearranged floor markers, the participants performed a horizontal push-pass explosively from the chest.

The flight time of the basketball push-pass was used to assess changes in performance. The ball passed through a photocell gate located at shoulder height at the point of release and hit a target on a wall-mounted contact mat that was placed 2 m away at the same height. This started and stopped the digital timer and recorded the flight time . Three consecutive basketball push-passes were performed before and after each experimental condition with the fastest time recorded for analysis. The shorter the flight time, the greater the velocity of the ball at release.

DISCUSSION

We recognize that the basketball push-pass test used in this study was not exclusively an upper-body performance test but an all-body movement that required stabilization and force transference along the whole kinetic chain from the feet upward. We also recognize that the medicine ball throw was biomechanically more similar to the basketball push-pass test than the bench press . No differences were observed between the high- and low-strength groups. found a greater level of PAP in experienced lifters.

This is reinforced by Hamada et al. and Smith and Fry , who observed that those participants with shorter twitch contraction times and greater percentage of type II fibers exhibited greater post activation potentiation. It is not surprising, therefore, that the low-strength group benefited as much as the high-strength group in this particular study. The similarity in response between the high- and low-strength groups may reflect the fact that all participants are successfully involved in power-based sports and are likely, therefore, to all have a similar distribution of type II fibers.
Although myosin light chain phosphorylation and subsequent increase in Ca2+ sensitivity seems the most likely mechanism for PAP, a number of other neurological mechanisms may account for this. This link between arousal and the performance of other gross motor skills, such as weightlifting, has been noticed previously .

Practical Applications

This study appears to confirm previous research suggesting that high loads are required to elicit a potentiation effect. It also appears that the biomechanical similarity of the preload movement may not be as important as the magnitude of the load placed on the muscle groups involved in the subsequent activity. We therefore recommend that athletes wishing to produce a short-term enhancement of power, whether for training or competition, should consider loads in the region of 85% 1RM for the preload activity. We do, however, note that it is common practice for athletes to use lighter loads , both as a warm-up and as a stimulus to contrast with subsequent, lighter, sets.

The potentiation response from lower loads, therefore, appears to be highly individual, with some athletes gaining meaningful benefits and others not. It may well be that the level of improvement required for statistical significance differs from that required to make a difference in the real world, particularly for some athletes.

 

 

 

 

REFERENCES

 

1. Adams, K, O’Shea, JP, O’Shea, KL, and Climstein, M. The effect of six weeks of squat, plyometric and squat-plyometric training on power production. J Appl Sports Sci Res 6: 6-41, 1992.

 

2. Baker, D. A series of studies on training of high-intensity muscle power in rugby league football players. J Strength Cond Res 15: 198-209, 2001.

 

3. Baker, D. Acute effect of alternating heavy and light resistances on power output during upper-body Complex Power training. J Strength Cond Res 17: 493-497, 2003.

 

4. Baker, D. Specific strength/power training for elite divers. Case study from the Australian Institute of Sport. Strength Cond Coach 2: 20-27, 2004.

 

5. Baker, D and Newton, RU. Methods to increase the effectiveness of maximal power training for the upper body. Strength Cond J 27: 24-32, 2005.

 

6. Brandenburg, J. The acute effects of prior dynamic resistance exercise using different loads on subsequent upper-body explosive performance in resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res 19: 427-432, 2005.

 

7. Burger, T, Boyer-Kendrick, T, and Dolny, D. Complex training compared to a combined weight training and plyometric training program. J Strength Cond Res 14: 360, 2000.

 

8. Chiu, L, Fry, L, Weiss, W, Schilling, B, Brown, L, and Smith, S. Postactivation potentiation response in athletic and recreationally trained individuals. J Strength Cond Res 17: 671-677, 2003.

 

9. Duthie, GM, Young, WB, and Aitken, DA. The acute effects of heavy loads on jump squat performance: An evaluation of the complex and contrast methods of power development. J Strength Cond Res 16: 530-538, 2002.

 

10. Ebben, WP, Watts, PB, Jensen, RL, and Blackard, DO. EMG and kinetic analysis of complex training exercise variables. J Strength Cond Res 14: 451-456, 2000.

 

11. Evans, AK, Hodgkins, TD, Durham, MP, Berning, JM, and Adams, KJ. The acute effects of a 5RM bench press on power output. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32: S311, 2000.

 

12. Fleck, S and Kontor, K. Complex training. Nat Strength Cond Ass J 8: 66-68, 1986.

 

13. Fleck, S and Kraemer, WJ. Designing Resistance Training Programmes (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics, 1997.

 

14. Fry, AC, Stone, MH, Thrush, JT, and Fleck, SJ. Precompetition training sessions enhance competitive performance of high anxiety junior weightlifters. J Strength Cond Res 9: 37-42, 1995.

 

15. Grange, RW, Vandenboom, R, and Houston, ME. Physiological significance of myosin phosphorylation in skeletal muscle. Can J App Physiol 18: 229-242, 1993.

 

16. Green, HJ and Jones, SR. Does post-tetanic potentiation compensate for low frequency fatigue? Clin Physiol 9: 499-514, 1989.

 

17. Gourgoulis, V, Aggeloussis, N, Kasimatis, P, Mavromatis, G, and Garas, A. Effect of a submaximal half squats warm-up program on vertical jumping ability. J Strength Cond Res 17: 342-344, 2003.

 

18. Gullich, A and Schmidtbleicher, D. Short-term potentiation of power performance induced by maximal voluntary contractions. In: Häkkinen, K, Keskinen, KL, Komi, PV, and Mero, A (eds.). Book of Abstracts-XVth Congress of the International Society of Biomechanics. Jyväskylä, 1995. pp. 348-349.

 

19. Hamada, T, Sale, DG, and MacDougal, JD. Post activation potentiation in endurance trained male athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 32: 403-411, 2000.

 

20. Hamada, T, Sale, DG, MacDougal, JD, and Tarnopolsky, MA. Postactivation potentiation, fibre type, and twitch contraction time in human knee extensor muscles. J Appl Physiol 88: 2131-2137, 2007.

 

21. Hrysomallis, C and Kidgell, D. Effect of heavy dynamic resistive exercise on acute upper body power. J Strength Cond Res 15: 426-430, 2001.

 

22. Jones, P and Lees, A. A biomechanical analysis of the acute effects of complex training using lower limb exercises. J Strength Cond Res 17: 694-700, 2003.

 

23. Kopysov, VS and Lelikov, S. Success of competitive performance of weightlifters. Theory Practice Physical Culture 7: 22-24, 1981.

 

24. Matthews, M, Matthews, H, and Snook, B. The acute effects of a resistance training warm-up on sprint performance. Res Sports Med 12: 151-160, 2004.

 

25. Matthews, M and Morris, J. Differential effect of complex training methods in high- and low-strength individuals. Abstract. Commonwealth International Sports Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 2006.

 

26. Newton, RU, Kraemer, WJ, Häkkinen, K, Humphries, BJ, and Murphy, AJ. Kinematics and kinetics and muscle activation during explosive upper body movements, J App Biomech 12: 31-43, 1996.

 

27. Palmer, BM and Moore, RL. Myosin light chain phosphorylation and tension potentiation in mouse skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 257: C1012s-C1019, 1989.

 

28. Petrella, RJ, Cunningham, DA, and Vandervoot, AA. Comparison of twitch potentiation in the gastrocnemius of young and elderly men. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 58: 395-399, 1989.

 

29. Radcliffe, JC and Radcliffe, JL. Effects of different warm-up protocols on peak power output during a single response jump task. Med Sci Sports Exerc 38: S189, 1999.

 

30. Rixon, KP, Lamont, HS, and Bemben, MG. Influence of type of muscle contraction, gender, and lifting experience on postactivation potentiation experience. J Strength Cond Res 21: 500-505, 2007.

 

31. Scott, SL and Docherty, D. Acute effects of heavy preloading on vertical and horizontal jump performance. J Strength Cond Res 18: 201-205, 2004.

 

32. Smilios, I, Pilianidis, T, Sotiropoulos, K, Antonakis, M, and Tokmakidis, SP. Short-term effects of selected exercise and load in contrast training on vertical jump performance. J Strength Cond Res 19: 135-139, 2005.

 

33. Smith, JC and Fry, AC. Effects of a ten-second maximum voluntary contraction on regulatory myosin light-chain phosphorylation and dynamic performance measures. J Strength Cond Res 21: 73-76, 2007.

 

34. Sweeney, HL, Bowman, BF, and Stull, JT. Myosin light chain phosphorylation in vertebrate striated muscle: regulation and function. Am J Physiol 264: C1085-C1095, 1993.

 

35. Vandervoort, AA, Quinlan, J, and McComas, AJ. Twitch potentiation after voluntary contraction. Exp Neurol 81: 141-152, 1983.

 

36. Young, WB, Jenner, A, and Griffiths, K. Acute enhancement of power performance from heavy load squats. J Strength Cond Res 12: 82-84, 1998.